# AP Psychology (2025) - The Night Before Cram Session 🚀 Hey! Feeling a bit overwhelmed? Don't worry, you've got this! Let's quickly review the key concepts for the AP Psych exam. This guide is designed to be your best friend tonight, focusing on high-yield info and making sure everything clicks. Let's dive in! ## Unit 7: Psychological Disorders - Overview This unit is a BIG deal, so let's nail it! We'll cover the major categories of disorders, their symptoms, and what causes them. Think of it as your roadmap to understanding the complexities of the human mind. Let's get started! ### Neurodevelopmental Disorders These disorders start early in life and impact how people behave, think, and interact socially. Think of them as differences in how the brain develops. 🧠 #### Characteristics * Appear during the **developmental period**. * Affect **behavior, cognition, or social skills**. * Key examples: **ADHD** and **Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)**. * Symptoms are evaluated against **age-appropriate behaviors**. #### Causes * **Environmental:** * Prenatal exposure to **toxins, alcohol, or drugs**. * **Malnutrition** during critical periods. * **Traumatic brain injuries** or infections. * **Physiological:** * **Brain abnormalities** or hormonal imbalances. * **Neurotransmitter imbalances** (dopamine, serotonin). * **Genetic:** * **Inherited traits** or mutations. * Interactions between **genes and environment**. **Think of neurodevelopmental disorders as a combination of nature (genes) and nurture (environment) impacting brain development.** ### Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorders These disorders involve significant disturbances in how people perceive reality, think, and behave. It's like their internal world is out of sync. 🤯 #### Features * Disturbances in: **delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking/speech, disorganized behavior, and negative symptoms**. * **Delusions:** False beliefs (e.g., persecutory, grandiose). * **Hallucinations:** False perceptions (e.g., hearing voices). * **Disorganized thinking/speech:** "Word salad," nonsensical phrases. * **Disorganized behavior:** Catatonic excitement or stupor. * **Negative symptoms:** Absence of typical behaviors (e.g., flat affect, avolition). * Can be **acute** or **chronic**. #### Causes * **Genetic:** * **Family history** increases risk. * Specific **gene variations**. * Interaction with **environmental triggers**. * **Biological:** * **Prenatal virus exposure** (e.g., influenza). * **Complications** during pregnancy/childbirth. * **Neurotransmitter imbalances** (dopamine hypothesis). * **Environmental:** * **Stressful life events** or trauma. * **Substance abuse** (especially cannabis). * **Social isolation**. **Remember the 5 key areas of disturbance: Delusions, Hallucinations, Disorganized Thinking, Disorganized Behavior, and Negative Symptoms (DHDN).** ### Depressive Disorders These disorders involve persistent sadness and changes that affect daily life. It's more than just feeling down; it's a deep, ongoing struggle. 😔 #### Characteristics * Persistent **sad, empty, or irritable moods**. * Changes in **sleep, appetite, energy, concentration, and self-esteem**. * Interferes with **work, study, and relationships**. * Key examples: **Major Depressive Disorder** and **Persistent Depressive Disorder**. #### Causes * **Biological:** * **Neurotransmitter imbalances** (serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine). * **Brain structure/function abnormalities**. * **Hormonal changes**. * **Genetic:** * **Family history** increases risk. * Specific **gene variations**. * Interaction with **environmental triggers**. * **Social & Cultural:** * **Stressful life events** or trauma. * **Lack of social support** or isolation. * **Cultural pressures**. * **Behavioral:** * **Learned helplessness**. * Lack of **positive reinforcement**. * **Maladaptive coping** (substance abuse). * **Cognitive:** * **Negative thinking** patterns. * **Pessimistic interpretations**. **Remember the biopsychosocial model: Biological, Psychological (behavioral and cognitive), and Social factors all play a role.** ### Bipolar Disorders These disorders involve dramatic mood swings between mania and depression. It's like a rollercoaster of emotions. 🎭 #### Features * Alternating periods of **mania** and **depression**. * **Bipolar I:** Full manic episodes. * **Bipolar II:** Hypomania (less severe mania). * **Manic episodes:** Inflated self-esteem, decreased sleep, talkativeness, racing thoughts, risky behaviors. * **Depressive episodes:** Similar to major depressive disorder. * Varied **length and frequency** of episodes. #### Causes * **Biological:** * **Neurotransmitter imbalances** (dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine). * **Brain structure/function abnormalities**. * **Disruptions in circadian rhythms**. * **Genetic:** * **Family history** significantly increases risk. * Specific **gene variations**. * Interaction with **environmental triggers**. * **Social & Cultural:** * **Stressful life events** or trauma. * **Lack of social support**. * **Cultural stigma**. * **Behavioral:** * **Irregular sleep schedules**. * **Substance abuse**. * Lack of **treatment adherence**. * **Cognitive:** * **Grandiose thinking** during mania. * **Negative thinking** during depression. * Difficulty **regulating emotions**. **Think of bipolar as a mood seesaw: Mania on one side, depression on the other. Remember the key is the alternating nature of the moods.** ### Anxiety Disorders These disorders involve excessive fear and anxiety that disrupt daily life. It's like your body's alarm system is constantly going off. 😰 #### Types * **Specific phobias:** Intense fears of objects or situations. * **Agoraphobia:** Fear of situations where escape is difficult. * **Panic disorder:** Recurrent, unexpected panic attacks. * **Ataque de nervios:** Culture-bound panic disorder. * **Social anxiety disorder:** Fear of social situations. * **Taijin kyofusho:** Culture-bound social anxiety. * **Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD):** Persistent, excessive worry. #### Causes * **Learned Associations:** * **Classical conditioning** (stimulus-fear association). * **Observational learning** (learning from others' fears). * **Traumatic experiences**. * **Maladaptive Thinking:** * **Catastrophizing** or overgeneralizing. * **Attentional biases** towards threats. * Difficulty tolerating **uncertainty**. * **Emotional Dysregulation:** * Inability to **manage intense emotions**. * **Heightened sensitivity** to physical symptoms. * **Avoidance behaviors**. * **Biological & Genetic:** * **Neurotransmitter imbalances** (serotonin, norepinephrine, GABA). * **Brain structure/function abnormalities** (amygdala, prefrontal cortex). * **Family history**. **Think of anxiety as a combination of learned fears, thinking errors, and biological factors. Remember the amygdala's role in fear processing.** ### Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders These disorders involve intrusive thoughts and repetitive behaviors that cause distress. It's like your mind is stuck in a loop. 🔁 #### Features * **Obsessions:** Intrusive, unwanted thoughts. * **Compulsions:** Repetitive behaviors or mental acts to reduce anxiety. * **OCD:** Both obsessions and compulsions. * **Hoarding disorder:** Difficulty discarding possessions. * Obsessions/compulsions center around themes like contamination, symmetry, or harm. * Individuals often know their thoughts/behaviors are irrational but can't control them. #### Causes * **Learned Associations:** * **Classical conditioning** (stimulus-anxiety association). * **Negative reinforcement** (compulsions reduce anxiety). * **Observational learning**. * **Maladaptive Thinking:** * **Overestimating negative outcomes** (thought-action fusion). * **Inflated responsibility** for preventing harm. * Difficulty tolerating **uncertainty**. * **Emotional Dysregulation:** * Inability to **manage intrusive thoughts**. * **Heightened sensitivity** to disgust. * **Avoidance behaviors**. * **Biological & Genetic:** * **Neurotransmitter imbalances** (serotonin, dopamine). * **Brain structure/function abnormalities** (basal ganglia, prefrontal cortex). * **Family history**. **Think of OCD as a cycle: Obsessions lead to anxiety, which is temporarily relieved by compulsions. Remember the role of the basal ganglia in habit formation.** ### Dissociative Disorders These disorders involve disruptions in consciousness, memory, and identity. It's like the mind is trying to protect itself by disconnecting from reality. 🧩 #### Characteristics * Disruptions in **consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, motor control, or behavior**. * **Dissociative amnesia:** Inability to recall personal information. * **Dissociative fugue:** Amnesia with unexpected travel/wandering. * **Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID):** Two or more distinct personality states. * Symptoms can be **sudden/transient** or **persistent/chronic**. * Feelings of **detachment** from thoughts, feelings, body, or surroundings. #### Causes * **Traumatic Experiences:** * Exposure to **severe, repeated trauma** (especially in childhood). * Witnessing **life-threatening events**. * Dissociation as a **coping mechanism**. * **Chronic Stress:** * Persistent **high levels of stress**. * Lack of **healthy coping strategies**. * Dissociation as an escape from **helplessness**. * **Childhood Abuse/Neglect:** * Disrupts **identity development** and **emotional regulation**. * Dissociation to **compartmentalize painful memories**. * Lack of **secure attachment**. * **Genetic & Biological:** * **Genetic component** (higher rates in relatives). * **Brain structure/function abnormalities** (memory, emotion processing). * Interaction with **environmental stressors**. **Think of dissociative disorders as the mind's way of coping with extreme trauma by disconnecting. Remember that trauma is the primary cause.** ### Trauma Disorders These disorders involve distress following exposure to a traumatic event. It's like the mind is struggling to recover from a major shock. 🚨 #### Features * Psychological distress after **traumatic events**. * **Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)** is the main focus. * Symptoms: **intrusive memories, avoidance, negative mood/cognition, hyperarousal**. * Can be **acute** (less than 3 months) or **chronic** (3+ months). * Impairs **social, occupational, and academic functioning**. #### Causes * **Exposure to Traumatic Events:** * Direct experience of **death, injury, or sexual violence**. * Witnessing **traumatic events**. * Learning about **trauma to loved ones**. * Repeated exposure to **aversive details**. * **Individual Differences:** * Pre-existing **mental health conditions**. * Lack of **healthy coping strategies**. * Tendency to **blame oneself**. * **Biological & Genetic:** * **Imbalances** in stress hormones (cortisol) and neurotransmitters (norepinephrine). * **Brain abnormalities** (amygdala, hippocampus). * **Family history**. **Think of PTSD as the brain's struggle to process a traumatic event. Remember the role of the amygdala in fear and the hippocampus in memory.** ### Eating Disorders These disorders involve disturbances in eating behaviors and related thoughts/emotions. It's like food and body image become a battleground. 🍽️ #### Characteristics * Persistent disturbances in **eating behaviors**. * **Anorexia nervosa:** Restriction, fear of weight gain, distorted body image. * **Bulimia nervosa:** Binge eating with compensatory behaviors. * Significant impairments in **physical health, social functioning, and quality of life**. * Often co-occurring with other **mental health conditions**. #### Causes * **Biological:** * **Genetic predisposition**. * **Brain structure/function abnormalities** (reward processing, appetite regulation). * **Hormonal imbalances**. * **Psychological:** * **Low self-esteem** and perfectionism. * **Body image distortion**. * **Maladaptive coping**. * **Social & Cultural:** * **Cultural ideals of thinness**. * **Social pressures**. * **Media influences**. * **Environmental:** * **Stressful life events**. * **Family dynamics**. * **Trauma**. **Remember the complex interplay of biological, psychological, social, and environmental factors in eating disorders. It's not just about food; it's about underlying issues.** ## Final Exam Focus Okay, let's get down to brass tacks. Here's what you absolutely need to nail for the exam: * **High-Priority Topics:** * **Symptoms and causes of major disorders:** Schizophrenia, depression, bipolar, anxiety, OCD, PTSD, and eating disorders. * **Neurotransmitter imbalances** and their role in disorders. * **The biopsychosocial model** and its application to understanding disorders. * **Classical conditioning** and its role in anxiety and OCD. * **The impact of trauma** on mental health. * **Common Question Types:** * **Multiple-choice questions** testing knowledge of symptoms and causes. * **Free-response questions** requiring application of concepts to case studies. * Questions combining **multiple units** (e.g., linking biology to psychological disorders). * **Last-Minute Tips:** * **Time Management:** Don't spend too long on a single question. Move on and come back if needed. * **Common Pitfalls:** Avoid overthinking, read questions carefully, and don't make assumptions. * **Strategies:** Use process of elimination, underline key terms, and write clearly in FRQs. ## Practice Questions Here are some practice questions to get you in the zone: **Multiple Choice Questions** 1. A person who experiences sudden episodes of intense fear, accompanied by physical symptoms such as a racing heart and difficulty breathing, is most likely suffering from: (A) Generalized anxiety disorder (B) Panic disorder (C) Social anxiety disorder (D) Obsessive-compulsive disorder (E) Posttraumatic stress disorder 2. Which of the following neurotransmitters is most closely associated with the symptoms of schizophrenia? (A) Serotonin (B) Norepinephrine (C) Dopamine (D) GABA (E) Acetylcholine 3. A patient reports experiencing intrusive, unwanted thoughts that cause her significant distress. To alleviate this distress, she engages in repetitive behaviors such as hand-washing. This patient is most likely suffering from: (A) Generalized anxiety disorder (B) Panic disorder (C) Social anxiety disorder (D) Obsessive-compulsive disorder (E) Posttraumatic stress disorder **Free Response Question** Sarah, a 25-year-old, has been experiencing significant changes in her mood and behavior over the past few months. She alternates between periods of extreme euphoria, during which she feels incredibly energetic, talks rapidly, and engages in risky behaviors, and periods of deep sadness and fatigue, where she has difficulty getting out of bed and feels hopeless. Her family has a history of mental illness, and she has recently been under a great deal of stress at work. (a) Identify the most likely psychological disorder Sarah is experiencing. (b) Explain two biological factors that may be contributing to Sarah's condition. (c) Explain two psychological factors that may be contributing to Sarah's condition. (d) Explain how the biopsychosocial model can be used to understand Sarah's condition. **Scoring Breakdown** (a) (1 point) Bipolar disorder (b) (2 points) Two of the following: * Neurotransmitter imbalances (dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine) * Brain structure or function abnormalities * Genetic predisposition (family history) * Disruptions in circadian rhythms (c) (2 points) Two of the following: * Stressful life events or trauma * Maladaptive coping strategies * Cognitive distortions (grandiose thinking, negative thinking) * Irregular sleep schedules (d) (2 points) Explanation of how the biopsychosocial model incorporates biological, psychological, and social factors to understand Sarah's condition. The response should indicate that all three factors interact to influence the development and presentation of the disorder. For example, the response may include that Sarah's genetic predisposition (biological) combined with her stressful work environment (social) and her maladaptive coping strategies (psychological) are all contributing to her bipolar disorder. Remember, you've studied hard, and you know this material. Take a deep breath, trust your instincts, and go get that 5! You've got this!

Selection of Categories of Psychological Disorders

Mia Perez

How are we doing?

Selection of Categories of Psychological Disorders

Mia Perez

How are we doing?