Glossary
Applied Research
Scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems and has clear, direct applications to real-world issues.
Example:
Developing a new therapeutic technique to treat anxiety disorders is an example of applied research.
B.F. Skinner
An influential American behaviorist who developed operant conditioning, focusing on how consequences shape voluntary behaviors.
Example:
A teacher using a token economy to reward good behavior in the classroom is applying the principles of operant conditioning, as researched by B.F. Skinner.
Basic Research
Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base, often conducted without an immediate practical application in mind.
Example:
A neuroscientist studying the fundamental mechanisms of memory formation in the brain is conducting basic research.
Behaviorism
A school of thought in psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and how it is learned through conditioning, rejecting the study of internal mental states.
Example:
A psychologist who believes that all phobias are learned responses to environmental stimuli is operating from a behaviorism perspective.
Carl Rogers
A prominent humanist psychologist who developed client-centered therapy, emphasizing empathy, unconditional positive regard, and genuineness in therapeutic relationships.
Example:
In therapy, a counselor who actively listens and validates a client's feelings without judgment is applying principles developed by Carl Rogers.
Case Study
An in-depth, detailed investigation of a single individual, group, or rare phenomenon, often used to explore complex or unusual situations.
Example:
A psychologist might conduct a case study on a patient with a unique neurological disorder to gain deep insights into brain function.
Charles Darwin
A British naturalist known for his theory of evolution by natural selection, which influenced the evolutionary approach in psychology.
Example:
The concept of 'survival of the fittest' from Charles Darwin's work helps explain why certain behaviors might have evolved to enhance human survival.
Confounding Variable
An extraneous factor that is not the independent variable but could affect the dependent variable, potentially leading to a false conclusion about cause and effect.
Example:
If a study on exercise and mood doesn't account for participants' diet, diet could be a confounding variable influencing the results.
Control Variable
A factor that is kept constant or consistent across all groups in an experiment to ensure that only the independent variable is affecting the dependent variable.
Example:
In a study on sleep and test performance, ensuring all participants take the test at the same time of day would make 'time of day' a control variable.
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus how well either variable predicts the other.
Example:
There is a positive correlation between hours spent exercising and overall physical health; as one increases, the other tends to increase.
Correlational Study
A research method that examines the extent to which two variables are related, allowing for prediction but not cause-and-effect conclusions.
Example:
A researcher might conduct a correlational study to see if there's a relationship between hours spent studying and exam scores, but they cannot say studying causes higher scores.
Cross-Sectional Study
A research design that compares different groups of individuals at a single point in time, often used to examine developmental differences across age groups.
Example:
To compare the reading comprehension levels of 5-year-olds, 10-year-olds, and 15-year-olds simultaneously, a researcher would use a cross-sectional study.
Debriefing
The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.
Example:
After a study involving deception, researchers conduct a debriefing session to explain the true nature of the experiment and address any concerns.
Dependent Variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
Example:
In an experiment testing a new drug, the measured reduction in anxiety symptoms is the dependent variable.
Descriptive Statistics
Mathematical methods used to organize, summarize, and describe characteristics of a data set, such as measures of central tendency and variability.
Example:
Calculating the average score and the range of scores on a test involves using descriptive statistics.
Dorothea Dix
An American activist who tirelessly advocated for the humane treatment of the mentally ill, leading to the establishment of numerous mental hospitals.
Example:
Thanks to the efforts of Dorothea Dix, many people suffering from mental illness received proper care instead of being confined in inhumane conditions.
Dualism
A philosophical belief that the mind and body are distinct and separate entities, with the mind often considered non-physical and capable of existing independently.
Example:
Rene Descartes' idea that the mind interacts with the body but is fundamentally different from it is an example of dualism.
Empiricism
The view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation.
Example:
A researcher who insists on collecting data through direct observation rather than relying on intuition is practicing empiricism.
Experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable), while controlling other relevant factors.
Example:
To determine if a new medication reduces anxiety, researchers conduct an experiment where one group receives the drug and another receives a placebo.
Experimenter Bias
A phenomenon where a researcher's expectations or beliefs about the outcome of a study unintentionally influence the results.
Example:
If a researcher subtly encourages participants in the 'treatment' group to perform better, this could be an example of experimenter bias.
External Validity
The extent to which the findings of a research study can be generalized to other situations, people, and settings outside of the experimental context.
Example:
If a study on college students' learning strategies can also apply to high school students and adults, it has high external validity.
Functionalism
An early school of psychology that focused on the purpose or function of mental processes and behaviors, rather than just their structure, emphasizing how they help individuals adapt to their environment.
Example:
Instead of analyzing the components of consciousness, functionalism would ask why we have consciousness and what adaptive purpose it serves.
G. Stanley Hall
A prominent American psychologist who established the first psychology lab in the U.S. and was a pioneer in educational psychology and child development.
Example:
As a founder of the APA and a key figure in developmental psychology, G. Stanley Hall significantly shaped the early landscape of American psychology.
Gestalt
A school of psychology that emphasizes that the whole of experience is greater than the sum of its parts, focusing on how we perceive patterns and organize sensory information.
Example:
When you see a series of flashing lights as a moving arrow rather than individual lights, you are experiencing a Gestalt principle of perception.
Hawthorne Effect
A phenomenon in which individuals modify an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed.
Example:
Workers in a factory might temporarily increase their productivity simply because they know they are part of a study, illustrating the Hawthorne Effect.
Hindsight Bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it, often referred to as the 'I knew it all along' phenomenon.
Example:
After a sports team wins a championship, fans might claim they 'knew all along' they would win, demonstrating hindsight bias.
Independent Variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated or changed by the researcher; its effect is being studied.
Example:
In an experiment testing a new drug, the dosage of the drug given to participants is the independent variable.
Inferential Statistics
Mathematical methods that allow researchers to make generalizations or draw conclusions about a population based on data from a sample.
Example:
Using a t-test to determine if the difference between two group means is statistically significant is an application of inferential statistics.
Informed Consent
An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
Example:
Before starting a study, researchers must obtain informed consent from participants, explaining the study's purpose, risks, and their right to withdraw.
Internal Validity
The extent to which a study establishes a trustworthy cause-and-effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables, free from confounding variables.
Example:
A well-designed experiment with proper controls and random assignment aims for high internal validity, ensuring that the independent variable truly caused the observed changes.
Ivan Pavlov
A Russian physiologist known for his groundbreaking work on classical conditioning, demonstrated through his experiments with dogs.
Example:
The sound of a bell making a dog salivate, even without food present, is a classic example of Ivan Pavlov's discovery of classical conditioning.
Jean Piaget
A Swiss developmental psychologist renowned for his theory of cognitive development, outlining distinct stages children go through as they acquire knowledge.
Example:
Understanding why a young child struggles with abstract concepts but excels at concrete tasks can be explained by Jean Piaget's stages of cognitive development.
John B. Watson
An American psychologist considered the 'father of behaviorism,' known for his emphasis on observable behavior and the Little Albert experiment.
Example:
The famous Little Albert experiment, which demonstrated how fears can be classically conditioned, was conducted by John B. Watson.
Longitudinal Study
A research design that involves observing and collecting data from the same group of individuals over an extended period of time.
Example:
To track the development of language skills from infancy to adulthood, researchers would conduct a longitudinal study following the same children for decades.
Margaret Floy Washburn
The first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology in the United States, known for her experimental work on animal behavior and motor theory development.
Example:
Breaking barriers in academia, Margaret Floy Washburn's achievement paved the way for future women in the field of psychology.
Mary Whiton Calkins
A pioneering American psychologist who was the first female president of the American Psychological Association (APA) and developed the theory of self-psychology.
Example:
Despite facing significant discrimination, Mary Whiton Calkins made lasting contributions to psychology, including her work on memory and self-concept.
Mean
The arithmetic average of a distribution, calculated by adding all the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.
Example:
To find the mean test score for a class, you add up all the individual scores and divide by the number of students.
Median
The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it, especially useful for skewed data.
Example:
If the test scores are 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, the median score is 80.
Milgram Experiment
A controversial social psychology experiment conducted by Stanley Milgram that investigated obedience to authority figures, often involving deception and ethical concerns.
Example:
The Milgram Experiment famously demonstrated how readily individuals would obey orders from an authority figure, even when those orders conflicted with their personal conscience.
Monism
A philosophical belief that the mind and body are not separate entities but rather a single, unified substance or process.
Example:
Someone who believes that all mental experiences are simply products of brain activity holds a monism view.
Normal
Refers to a symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution of data where most scores fall near the mean, and fewer scores occur at the extremes.
Example:
Many human characteristics, like height or IQ scores, tend to follow a normal distribution.
Operational Definition
A precise, measurable statement of the procedures used to define research variables, ensuring that the variables can be objectively measured and replicated.
Example:
To study 'aggression,' an operational definition might be 'the number of times a child hits or pushes another child during a 30-minute play session.'
Psychology
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes, using systematic research methods to understand how individuals think and act.
Example:
A psychologist might study how stress affects memory, observing both observable behaviors and internal cognitive processes to understand the psychology behind it.
Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing pre-existing differences between the groups and increasing the likelihood of valid results.
Example:
To ensure that groups are comparable at the start of an experiment, researchers use random assignment to place participants into either the treatment or control group.
Sampling Bias
A flaw in the research process where the sample of participants does not accurately represent the larger population, leading to skewed or ungeneralizable results.
Example:
If a survey about student opinions on school lunches only includes responses from students in the cafeteria, it might suffer from sampling bias.
Sigmund Freud
An Austrian neurologist who founded psychoanalysis, a therapeutic approach that emphasizes the influence of unconscious drives and early childhood experiences on behavior.
Example:
When discussing the impact of unconscious conflicts on personality, students often refer to the theories of Sigmund Freud.
Skews
A measure of the asymmetry of the probability distribution of a real-valued random variable about its mean, indicating if data is concentrated on one side.
Example:
If a test is very easy, most scores will be high, resulting in a distribution that skews to the left (negatively skewed).
Structuralism
An early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind, focusing on breaking down mental processes into their basic components.
Example:
A psychologist asking a person to describe their exact sensations and feelings when looking at a rose would be using a structuralism approach.
Survey Research
A research method in which data is collected from a large number of people through questionnaires or interviews to gather information about attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors.
Example:
To understand public opinion on a new policy, a political scientist might use survey research by asking a representative sample of citizens a series of questions.
Tabula Rasa
Latin for 'blank slate,' this concept, proposed by John Locke, suggests that individuals are born without innate knowledge, and all knowledge is acquired through experience.
Example:
The idea that a newborn's mind is a tabula rasa implies that their personality and knowledge will be entirely shaped by their environment and experiences.
Theory
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
Example:
Freud's psychoanalytic theory attempts to explain personality development and psychological disorders based on unconscious conflicts.
Wilhelm Wundt
Considered the 'father of psychology,' he established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, marking the beginning of psychology as a formal science.
Example:
When learning about the origins of experimental psychology, students often remember Wilhelm Wundt for his pioneering work in setting up the first lab.
William James
A leading American psychologist and philosopher who founded functionalism and wrote 'Principles of Psychology,' a foundational text in the field.
Example:
Instead of just describing mental structures, William James focused on the adaptive purpose of consciousness, asking 'What is the function of this thought?'