Glossary
Albert Bandura
Canadian-American psychologist renowned for his social learning theory, emphasizing observational learning and modeling.
Example:
Bandura's Bobo doll experiment showed children imitating aggressive behaviors they observed in adults, even without direct reinforcement.
B.F. Skinner
American behaviorist who developed the theory of operant conditioning, focusing on how consequences shape voluntary behavior.
Example:
Skinner used a 'Skinner box' to study how rats and pigeons learned to press levers or peck keys to receive reinforcement, demonstrating the power of consequences.
Classical Conditioning
A type of learning where an organism learns to associate two stimuli, leading to an involuntary, reflexive response.
Example:
The sound of a dentist's drill might make you feel anxious, even before any pain, due to classical conditioning from past experiences.
Conditioned Response (CR)
In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (now conditioned) stimulus, which is often similar to the unconditioned response.
Example:
If the sound of a specific song now makes you feel hungry because it was paired with food, that feeling of hunger is the conditioned response.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
In classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.
Example:
If a specific song was playing every time you ate your favorite food, that song could become a conditioned stimulus making you feel hungry.
Edward Thorndike
American psychologist known for his 'Law of Effect,' which states that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to be repeated.
Example:
Thorndike's puzzle box experiments with cats led to his theory that successful actions are stamped in through trial and error, influencing future behavior.
Edward Tolman
American psychologist who introduced the concept of latent learning, suggesting that learning can occur without immediate reinforcement or observable behavior.
Example:
Tolman's maze experiments with rats demonstrated that they developed a cognitive map of the maze even without rewards, only showing their knowledge when a reward was introduced.
Fixed Interval (Schedule of Reinforcement)
A schedule of reinforcement where a response is reinforced only after a specified amount of time has elapsed.
Example:
Receiving a paycheck every two weeks is an example of a fixed interval schedule, often leading to increased work effort closer to payday.
Fixed Ratio (Schedule of Reinforcement)
A schedule of reinforcement where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses.
Example:
A coffee shop offers a free drink after every 10 purchases, using a fixed ratio schedule to encourage repeat business.
Instinctive Drift
The tendency for an animal's innate, species-specific behaviors to interfere with or override learned behaviors, even when reinforced.
Example:
A raccoon trained to put coins in a piggy bank might revert to its natural instinctive drift of rubbing the coins together with its paws.
Ivan Pavlov
Russian physiologist known for his pioneering work on classical conditioning, demonstrating how associations between stimuli lead to involuntary responses.
Example:
Pavlov's experiments showed how dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, associating it with food, a classic example of classical conditioning.
John Watson
American psychologist who established behaviorism and applied classical conditioning principles to human emotions, notably fear.
Example:
Watson's 'Little Albert' experiment demonstrated how fear could be conditioned in a child by pairing a loud noise with a white rat.
Learned Helplessness
The tendency to give up trying to control a situation after repeated exposure to aversive stimuli that cannot be avoided or escaped.
Example:
A student who repeatedly fails tests despite studying might develop learned helplessness and stop trying altogether, believing their efforts are futile.
Negative Reinforcement
The removal of an aversive stimulus following a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior recurring.
Example:
Fastening your seatbelt to stop the annoying beeping sound in your car is negative reinforcement because an unpleasant sound is removed, encouraging seatbelt use.
Observational Learning
Learning that occurs by watching and imitating the behaviors of others, without direct experience of consequences.
Example:
A child learns to tie their shoes by observing their parent demonstrate the steps, then mimicking the action.
Operant Conditioning
A type of learning where voluntary behaviors are strengthened or weakened by the consequences that follow them.
Example:
A dog learns to sit on command because it consistently receives a treat for performing the operant behavior, making it more likely to sit again.
Positive Reinforcement
The addition of a desirable stimulus following a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior recurring.
Example:
Giving a child a toy for cleaning their room is positive reinforcement because a desirable item is added to encourage future cleaning.
Preparedness
A biological predisposition to learn certain associations more readily than others, often due to their survival value.
Example:
It's easier to teach a person to fear snakes or spiders than flowers, illustrating preparedness for ancestral threats.
Punishment
Any event or stimulus that, when it follows a response, decreases the likelihood that the response will occur again.
Example:
Giving a child a timeout for hitting their sibling is a form of punishment intended to reduce the hitting behavior.
Reinforcement
Any event or stimulus that, when it follows a response, increases the likelihood that the response will occur again.
Example:
Giving a child praise for cleaning their room is a form of reinforcement that makes them more likely to clean again in the future.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Rules determining when and how often reinforcements will be delivered in operant conditioning, influencing the pattern and rate of behavior.
Example:
Different schedules of reinforcement, such as fixed or variable, can lead to distinct patterns of responding, like steady work or bursts of activity.
Superstitious Behavior
Behavior that is accidentally reinforced and therefore believed to cause a desired outcome, even if there's no causal link.
Example:
A baseball player always wears their 'lucky' socks because they once had a great game while wearing them, leading to superstitious behavior.
Taste Aversion
A powerful form of classical conditioning where an organism develops a strong dislike for a food after becoming ill from it, often after a single pairing.
Example:
After getting food poisoning from sushi, you might develop a taste aversion and feel nauseous whenever you see or smell it again.
Unconditioned Response (UR)
In classical conditioning, the natural, unlearned, and automatic reflexive response to an unconditioned stimulus.
Example:
When you accidentally touch a hot stove, immediately pulling your hand away is the unconditioned response.
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a reflexive response without any prior learning.
Example:
The smell of your favorite food naturally makes your mouth water; the food smell is the unconditioned stimulus.
Variable Interval (Schedule of Reinforcement)
A schedule of reinforcement where a response is reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed.
Example:
Checking your email for a reply operates on a variable interval schedule, as you don't know exactly when a new message will arrive, leading to consistent checking.
Variable Ratio (Schedule of Reinforcement)
A schedule of reinforcement where a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses.
Example:
Gambling on a slot machine operates on a variable ratio schedule, as the number of plays needed for a win is random, leading to high and consistent engagement.
Wolfgang Kohler
German Gestalt psychologist known for his work on insight learning, where problem-solving occurs through a sudden understanding of relationships.
Example:
Kohler's experiments with chimpanzees showed them suddenly figuring out how to stack boxes to reach a banana, demonstrating a flash of insight.