Glossary
Abstract reasoning
The ability to think about hypothetical situations, concepts, and ideas that are not concrete or physically present.
Example:
A teenager can debate philosophical concepts like justice or freedom, showcasing their capacity for abstract reasoning.
Accommodation
The process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to fit new information that doesn't fit into existing frameworks.
Example:
If a child sees a cat for the first time and realizes it doesn't quite fit their 'dog' schema, they might create a new accommodation for 'cat'.
Assimilation
The process of incorporating new experiences into existing schemas without changing the schema itself.
Example:
When a child sees a new breed of dog they've never encountered before, they assimilate it into their existing 'dog' schema.
Conservation
The understanding that the quantity or amount of a substance remains the same despite changes in its shape or appearance.
Example:
A child understands that pouring juice from a short, wide glass into a tall, narrow one doesn't change the amount of juice, demonstrating conservation.
Egocentrism
The inability to perceive a situation from another person's point of view, characteristic of the preoperational stage.
Example:
A young child stands directly in front of the television, blocking everyone else's view, because their egocentrism prevents them from understanding others can't see.
Infer and deduce
To draw conclusions or make logical predictions based on available information, even if not explicitly stated.
Example:
A student can infer and deduce the killer in a mystery novel before the reveal by carefully piecing together clues.
Language acquisition
The process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words and sentences to communicate.
Example:
A toddler rapidly learns new words and starts forming simple sentences, illustrating the process of language acquisition.
More knowledgeable others
Individuals, such as parents, teachers, or peers, who have a better understanding or higher skill level than the learner.
Example:
A younger sibling learns to tie their shoes by observing and receiving guidance from their more knowledgeable other, their older brother.
Object permanence
The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
Example:
A baby searches for a toy that has been hidden under a blanket, demonstrating their developing object permanence.
Operational thought
The ability to think logically about concrete events and perform mental operations, characteristic of the concrete operational stage.
Example:
A child can mentally reverse the steps of a simple math problem to check their answer, demonstrating operational thought.
Scaffolding
The process by which a more skilled person provides temporary support and guidance to a learner to help them master a task within their zone of proximal development.
Example:
A parent helps their child learn to ride a bike by holding the seat and gradually letting go as the child gains balance, providing scaffolding.
Schemas
Mental frameworks or concepts that help organize and interpret information, acting as building blocks of knowledge.
Example:
A child might have a schema for 'dog' that includes four legs, fur, and a tail, based on their experiences with pets.
Separation anxiety
Distress displayed by infants when a primary caregiver departs, often emerging around the same time as object permanence.
Example:
A toddler cries intensely and clings to their parent when dropped off at daycare, showing signs of separation anxiety.
Stranger anxiety
A form of distress that children experience when exposed to unfamiliar people, typically developing around 8-12 months.
Example:
A baby becomes visibly upset and clings to their parent when a new babysitter enters the room, indicating stranger anxiety.
Theory of mind
The ability to understand one's own and others' mental states, including beliefs, desires, and intentions.
Example:
A child understands that their friend might be sad because their toy broke, showing an emerging theory of mind.
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
The gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with the guidance and encouragement of a more skilled person.
Example:
A student can solve basic algebra problems alone but can tackle more complex ones with a teacher's help, operating within their zone of proximal development.