Glossary
Abraham Maslow
A humanistic psychologist known for developing the Hierarchy of Needs, a theory of psychological health predicated on fulfilling innate human needs.
Example:
Abraham Maslow's ideas emphasized the potential for human growth and self-actualization.
Affiliation Need
The fundamental human need to belong, to form close relationships, and to feel connected with others.
Example:
Joining a club or a sports team can satisfy a person's affiliation need by providing a sense of belonging.
Alfred Kinsey
An American biologist and professor who conducted pioneering, though controversial, research on human sexuality.
Example:
Alfred Kinsey's studies in the mid-20th century were among the first large-scale scientific investigations into sexual behavior.
Autonomy
The psychological need to feel a sense of control and personal choice over one's own life and actions.
Example:
Allowing students to choose their own project topics can increase their sense of autonomy and motivation.
Basal metabolic rate
The body's resting rate of energy expenditure, which varies among individuals and influences weight regulation.
Example:
Someone with a high basal metabolic rate burns more calories at rest than someone with a lower rate.
Cannon-Bard Theory
A theory of emotion stating that physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously and independently in response to a stimulus.
Example:
When you see a snake, your heart races and you feel fear at the exact same time, according to the Cannon-Bard Theory.
Common Sense Theory
A theory of emotion that suggests we first feel an emotion, and then our body reacts physiologically in response to that emotion.
Example:
The idea that you cry because you feel sad, rather than feeling sad because you cry, aligns with the Common Sense Theory of emotion.
Coronary Heart Disease
A disease in which the blood vessels that supply blood to the heart become narrowed or blocked, often linked to chronic stress.
Example:
Individuals with Type A personalities, who are often highly stressed, may be at a higher risk for developing Coronary Heart Disease.
Drive-Reduction Theory
The theory that motivation arises from the need to reduce internal tension (drives) caused by unmet biological needs, aiming to maintain homeostasis.
Example:
Feeling thirsty creates a 'thirst drive' that motivates you to drink water, thereby reducing the drive and restoring balance, as explained by Drive-Reduction Theory.
Emotion
A complex psychological state involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious thoughts.
Example:
Feeling your heart race, smiling, and thinking 'I'm so happy!' when you see a friend is an example of an emotion.
Extrinsic Motivation
Motivation that arises from external rewards or consequences, such as money, grades, or praise.
Example:
A student who studies hard only to get a good grade and avoid punishment from parents is demonstrating extrinsic motivation.
Facial Feedback Effect
The tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings, suggesting that our expressions can influence our emotions.
Example:
Forcing yourself to smile, even when you don't feel happy, might actually improve your mood due to the Facial Feedback Effect.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
Selye's three-stage model describing the body's physiological response to stress: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
Example:
During finals week, a student might first feel a burst of energy (alarm), then cope for days (resistance), and finally feel completely drained (exhaustion), demonstrating the General Adaptation Syndrome.
Glucose
A simple sugar that is an important energy source in living organisms and is crucial for brain function.
Example:
When your blood glucose levels drop, you might feel hungry and sluggish.
Hans Selye
An endocrinologist who researched stress and introduced the concept of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS).
Example:
Hans Selye's work showed how the body responds to prolonged stress in a predictable pattern.
Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow's theory proposing that human needs are arranged in a pyramid, with basic physiological needs at the bottom and self-actualization at the top.
Example:
Before a student can focus on achieving their full academic potential (self-actualization), they must first have their basic needs like food and safety met, according to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.
Homeostasis
A state of physiological balance or equilibrium within the body, which motivational drives often seek to maintain.
Example:
When your body temperature drops, shivering helps to raise it back to a stable level, maintaining thermal homeostasis.
Hormones
Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues, influencing many bodily functions including mood and motivation.
Example:
Testosterone and estrogen are hormones that play significant roles in sexual development and desire.
Incentive
An external stimulus or reward that motivates behavior, often pulling us towards a goal.
Example:
The promise of a bonus at work can serve as an incentive for employees to increase their productivity.
Intrinsic Motivation
Motivation that comes from within an individual, driven by personal enjoyment, interest, or satisfaction.
Example:
A person who reads books purely for the pleasure of learning new things is driven by intrinsic motivation.
James-Lange Theory
A theory of emotion stating that our physiological response to a stimulus precedes and causes our emotional experience.
Example:
According to the James-Lange Theory, if you encounter a bear, you first tremble and run, and then you feel fear because of those bodily reactions.
Joseph LeDoux’s theory
A theory proposing that emotions can follow two neural pathways: a fast, unconscious 'low road' directly to the amygdala, and a slower, conscious 'high road' through the cortex.
Example:
Jumping back instantly from a snake before consciously recognizing it is an example of the 'low road' in Joseph LeDoux’s theory of emotion.
Motivation
The needs or desires that energize and direct behavior, explaining the 'why' behind our actions.
Example:
The desire to earn a good grade can be a strong motivation for a student to study hard.
Optimal Arousal Theory
The theory that people are motivated to achieve and maintain an ideal level of physiological arousal, which varies from person to person.
Example:
Someone who enjoys skydiving might have a higher need for stimulation to reach their optimal arousal level compared to someone who prefers quiet activities.
Personality
An individual's unique and relatively consistent pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.
Example:
Someone who is consistently outgoing and enjoys social gatherings likely has an extroverted personality.
Polygraph
A machine, often called a 'lie detector,' that measures several physiological responses (like heart rate, breathing, and skin conductance) accompanying emotion.
Example:
A polygraph test attempts to detect deception by monitoring changes in a person's autonomic nervous system.
Psychophysiological Illness
Any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension or headaches, where psychological factors contribute to physical symptoms.
Example:
Experiencing frequent tension headaches during periods of high academic pressure could be an example of a psychophysiological illness.
Richard Lazarus’s appraisal theory
A theory of emotion suggesting that our cognitive appraisal (interpretation) of a situation is the primary determinant of our emotional response.
Example:
If you see a dog, your emotional response (fear or joy) depends on whether you appraise it as threatening or friendly, according to Richard Lazarus’s appraisal theory.
Set point
The genetically predetermined weight range that the body tends to maintain, regulating hunger and metabolism.
Example:
Despite dieting, some individuals find their weight tends to return to a certain range, suggesting their body is trying to maintain its set point.
Sexual Dysfunction
A problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning.
Example:
Erectile dysfunction is a common form of sexual dysfunction that can affect men.
Sexual response cycle
The four stages of physiological arousal during sexual activity: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.
Example:
Masters and Johnson extensively researched the human sexual response cycle to understand the physiological changes involved.
Stanley Schachter
An American social psychologist who, along with Jerome Singer, developed the Two-Factor Theory of Emotion.
Example:
Stanley Schachter's research highlighted the role of cognitive interpretation in emotional experience.
Stress
The process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.
Example:
Facing a tight deadline at work can induce stress, leading to feelings of pressure and anxiety.
Tend and befriend response
A stress response, more common in women, characterized by seeking social support and nurturing others in times of stress.
Example:
After a natural disaster, a community might come together to help each other and form support groups, demonstrating the tend and befriend response.
Two-Factor Theory
Schachter and Singer's theory that emotion is the result of both physiological arousal and a cognitive label for that arousal, based on the context.
Example:
If your heart races (arousal) while you're on a roller coaster, you might label it as excitement, but if it races in a dark alley, you might label it as fear, illustrating the Two-Factor Theory.
William James
A pioneering American psychologist who contributed to the functionalist school of thought and proposed a theory of emotion.
Example:
William James's work emphasized the adaptive purpose of consciousness and behavior.
Yerkes-Dodson Law
A principle stating that performance on a task is best at an intermediate level of arousal; too little or too much arousal can impair performance.
Example:
For a challenging exam, a moderate level of anxiety can enhance focus, but extreme anxiety can lead to a mental block, illustrating the Yerkes-Dodson Law.