Glossary
Conditioning
A fundamental learning process in behavioral theories where associations are formed between stimuli and responses, influencing personality through rewards and punishments.
Example:
A dog learning to sit on command to receive a treat is an example of conditioning shaping its behavior.
External Locus of Control
The belief that external forces, fate, or luck, rather than one's own actions, are primarily responsible for the outcomes and events in their life.
Example:
Someone with an external locus of control might blame a bad grade on a tricky test or an unfair teacher, rather than their own study habits.
Fundamental Postulate
The core principle of Personal-Construct Theory, stating that an individual's behavior is influenced by their thinking, and past behavior can help predict future actions.
Example:
If a student consistently studies hard because they believe it leads to good grades, this fundamental postulate suggests they will continue this behavior in the future.
Internal Locus of Control
The belief that one's own actions, efforts, and decisions primarily determine the outcomes and events in their life.
Example:
A person with an internal locus of control believes that their hard work, not luck, was the reason they got a promotion.
Learned Helplessness
A state that occurs when an individual repeatedly faces aversive events and feels they have no control over them, leading to a resignation to the situation and feelings of hopelessness.
Example:
After failing multiple attempts to solve a difficult puzzle, a child might experience learned helplessness and give up trying, even if a simpler solution is presented.
Optimism
A general tendency to expect positive outcomes and focus on the favorable aspects of situations, often linked to a sense of personal control.
Example:
Despite a setback, an optimistic person might view it as a temporary challenge and an opportunity to learn and improve.
Personal-Construct Theory
A theory suggesting that individuals develop unique systems of constructs, or personal filters, to interpret and understand the world around them.
Example:
Someone who consistently interprets challenges as opportunities for growth is using a positive personal construct to frame their experiences.
Pessimism
A general tendency to expect negative outcomes and focus on the unfavorable aspects of situations, often linked to a perceived lack of control.
Example:
Even when things are going well, a pessimistic individual might anticipate problems or focus on potential negative consequences.
Positive Psychology
A field of psychology founded by Martin Seligman that focuses on the study of human flourishing, well-being, and the strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive.
Example:
Instead of only studying depression, positive psychology researchers might investigate factors that contribute to happiness, resilience, and life satisfaction.
Reciprocal Determinism
Albert Bandura's concept describing the dynamic interplay among an individual's thoughts (cognition), their environment, and their behavior, where each factor influences the others in a continuous loop.
Example:
A student's belief in their ability to succeed (cognition) leads them to study diligently (behavior), which results in good grades (environment), further reinforcing their positive beliefs in a cycle of reciprocal determinism.
Self-Efficacy
An individual's belief in their own capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments or complete a particular task.
Example:
A student with high self-efficacy for math believes they can solve complex algebra problems, even if they find them challenging.
Self-Esteem
An individual's overall evaluation of their own worth or value, reflecting how much they like or respect themselves.
Example:
Someone with high self-esteem feels confident in their abilities and generally has a positive view of themselves.
Self-Serving Bias
The common human tendency to attribute one's successes to internal factors (like skill or effort) and one's failures to external factors (like bad luck or circumstances).
Example:
When a team wins, players often attribute the victory to their talent, but if they lose, they might blame the referee or poor field conditions, demonstrating self-serving bias.
Skinner
B.F. Skinner was a prominent behaviorist who argued that personality is primarily determined by environmental influences and the history of reinforcement and punishment.
Example:
Skinner's perspective would suggest that a person's shy personality might be due to past experiences where social interactions were punished or not rewarded.