European bases for trade and imperial administration, hubs for cultural and economic exchange and exploitation.

1494 agreement dividing the Americas between Spain and Portugal.

Spanish colonists' right to demand labor and tribute from indigenous people in exchange for protection and Christian instruction.

Large agricultural estates worked by indentured laborers, including indigenous people and African slaves.

A forced labor system used by the Spanish in mines like Potosi, modified from the Inca system.

The sea journey undertaken by slave ships from West Africa to the West Indies.

A system where enslaved people are treated as personal property of the owner and can be bought, sold, traded or inherited.

A labor system where people paid for their passage to the New World by working for an employer for a fixed number of years.

A West African state that became a major player in the slave trade, gaining wealth and power.

A British company established to take advantage of trade opportunities in India.

Both were labor systems in Spanish America. Encomienda involved tribute and labor from indigenous people in exchange for protection, while haciendas were large agricultural estates often using indentured labor.

Both were forms of coerced labor. Indentured servants worked for a fixed term in exchange for passage, while chattel slaves were considered property and enslaved permanently.

Japan initially welcomed Europeans but later adopted isolationist policies. China maintained limited contact with Europeans until forced to open up in the 19th century.

Spanish conquistador who conquered the Aztec Empire.

Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire.

The Inca leader captured and killed by Francisco Pizarro.

A Chinese explorer whose voyages preceded the Ming dynasty's retreat into isolationism.