Glossary
American Revolution
A colonial revolt that took place between 1775 and 1783, in which thirteen of Great Britain's North American colonies overthrew British rule and established the United States of America.
Example:
The American Revolution was sparked by grievances over taxation without representation, leading to the formation of a new constitutional republic.
Balkan Nationalism
The rise of nationalist movements among various ethnic groups in the Balkan region, leading to independence movements and conflicts as the Ottoman Empire declined.
Example:
Balkan Nationalism led to the fragmentation of the Ottoman Empire as groups like the Greeks, Serbs, and Bulgarians sought their own independent states.
Count di Cavour
A leading figure in the movement toward Italian unification, serving as the first Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia and employing Realpolitik.
Example:
Count di Cavour strategically allied with France to provoke war with Austria, a key step in expanding Piedmont-Sardinia's influence and unifying Italy.
Creole
A person of European descent born in the Spanish American colonies, who often felt resentment towards the Peninsulares and led the independence movements.
Example:
Despite their wealth, Creole elites were often excluded from top political positions, fueling their desire for independence from Spanish rule.
Declaration of Independence
The foundational document of the United States, adopted on July 4, 1776, which declared the American colonies independent from Great Britain and articulated Enlightenment principles.
Example:
The Declaration of Independence asserted the right to self-governance and listed the colonists' grievances against King George III, echoing Locke's ideas of natural rights.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
A fundamental document of the French Revolution, adopted in 1789, that defined the individual and collective rights of all estates as universal.
Example:
Inspired by Enlightenment ideals, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaimed liberty, equality, and fraternity as core principles for French society.
Enlightenment
An intellectual and philosophical movement in the 18th century that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism over tradition.
Example:
The Enlightenment challenged the divine right of kings, paving the way for revolutions that sought to establish governments based on popular sovereignty.
Estates General
A legislative and consultative assembly of the different classes (or estates) of French subjects, which was summoned by the King of France in 1789 for the first time since 1614.
Example:
The summoning of the Estates General in 1789, intended to address France's financial crisis, instead became the catalyst for the French Revolution due to disputes over voting.
French Revolution
A period of far-reaching social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799, which led to the abolition of monarchy and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
Example:
The French Revolution began with the storming of the Bastille and progressed through radical phases like the Reign of Terror, fundamentally reshaping French society.
German Unification
The process in the 19th century that saw the various independent German states, kingdoms, and principalities consolidate into a single German Empire.
Example:
The German Unification was largely achieved through a series of wars orchestrated by Prussia under Otto von Bismarck, culminating in the creation of a powerful new European state.
Giuseppe Garibaldi
An Italian general and nationalist who played a large role in the history of Italy, leading military campaigns that contributed to the formation of a unified Italy.
Example:
Giuseppe Garibaldi's 'Red Shirts' were instrumental in conquering Sicily and Naples, which were then handed over to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, aiding Italian unification.
Giuseppe Mazzini
An Italian politician, journalist, and activist for the unification of Italy and the founder of the secret society Young Italy.
Example:
Giuseppe Mazzini was a passionate advocate for a unified, republican Italy, inspiring many with his nationalist writings and activism.
Haitian Revolution
A successful anti-slavery and anti-colonial insurrection by self-liberated slaves against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue, leading to the establishment of Haiti as the first independent black republic in 1804.
Example:
The Haitian Revolution stands as the only successful slave revolt in history, inspiring enslaved people worldwide and striking fear into slave-owning societies.
Italian Unification
The political and social movement that consolidated different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of the Kingdom of Italy in the 19th century.
Example:
The Italian Unification was a complex process involving military campaigns, political maneuvering, and popular uprisings, driven by a shared sense of Italian identity.
Jamaica Letter
A document written by Simon Bolivar in 1815, in which he articulated his vision for a unified and independent Latin America and analyzed the region's political future.
Example:
In the Jamaica Letter, Bolivar outlined his hopes for a republican government in Latin America, while also acknowledging the challenges of achieving unity.
Latin American Creole Revolutions
A series of independence movements in the early 19th century led by Creoles against Spanish colonial rule across Central and South America.
Example:
The Latin American Creole Revolutions were fueled by Creole resentment over their subordinate status to Peninsulares and the restrictive mercantilist policies of Spain.
Lola Rodriguez de Tio
A Puerto Rican poet, abolitionist, and advocate for women's rights who inspired revolutionary movements against Spanish rule in Puerto Rico and Cuba.
Example:
Lola Rodriguez de Tio's powerful poetry served as a direct call to action, galvanizing support for independence from Spain in the Caribbean.
Mercantilism
An economic theory and practice, dominant in Europe from the 16th to the 18th century, that promoted governmental regulation of a nation's economy for the purpose of augmenting state power at the expense of rival national powers.
Example:
Under mercantilism, colonies were expected to provide raw materials to the mother country and serve as markets for its manufactured goods, often leading to colonial resentment.
Napoleon Bonaparte
A French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the Revolutionary Wars, eventually crowning himself Emperor of the French.
Example:
Napoleon Bonaparte brought an end to the chaotic phase of the French Revolution, but his imperial ambitions led to widespread conflict across Europe.
National Assembly
A revolutionary assembly formed by the representatives of the Third Estate of the Estates-General in France, marking a pivotal moment in the French Revolution.
Example:
When the Third Estate was locked out of the Estates-General, they formed the National Assembly, vowing not to disband until a new constitution was written.
Nationalism
A strong identification with one's own nation and support for its interests, especially to the exclusion or detriment of the interests of other nations.
Example:
Nationalism can be a powerful force, unifying disparate regions into a single state, as seen in Germany and Italy, or dividing empires like the Ottoman Empire.
Natural Rights
Fundamental rights inherent to all human beings, typically including life, liberty, and property, which governments cannot legitimately take away.
Example:
John Locke argued that people possess inherent natural rights to life, liberty, and property, which governments are obligated to protect.
New Zealand Wars
A series of armed conflicts fought between the Maori people and the British colonial government and its allies in New Zealand from 1845 to 1872.
Example:
The New Zealand Wars demonstrated how indigenous populations resisted British imperial expansion, even when facing superior industrial military technology.
Otto von Bismarck
A conservative Prussian statesman who dominated German and European affairs from the 1860s until 1890, and was the first Chancellor of the German Empire.
Example:
Otto von Bismarck famously used 'blood and iron' to achieve German unification, employing military force and shrewd diplomacy.
Peninsulares
People born in Spain or Portugal who resided in the Spanish American colonies, holding the highest positions in colonial society and government.
Example:
The Peninsulares held exclusive access to the most powerful administrative and ecclesiastical roles in Spanish America, often to the frustration of the Creoles.
Realpolitik
A political philosophy focused on practical and material factors rather than on theoretical or ethical objectives, often involving cunning and pragmatic decision-making.
Example:
Otto von Bismarck's use of Realpolitik involved calculated wars and alliances to achieve German unification, prioritizing power over ideology.
Reign of Terror
A period during the French Revolution (1793-1794) characterized by extreme violence, mass executions, and political purges, led by Maximilien Robespierre.
Example:
During the Reign of Terror, thousands of perceived enemies of the revolution were guillotined, demonstrating the radicalization of the French Revolution.
Separation of Powers
A political doctrine originating in the Enlightenment, proposing that governmental powers should be divided into distinct branches (e.g., legislative, executive, judicial) to prevent tyranny.
Example:
Montesquieu's idea of separation of powers influenced the U.S. Constitution, ensuring no single branch of government becomes too powerful.
Simon Bolivar
A Venezuelan military and political leader who played a key role in the establishment of several independent nations in South America, including Venezuela, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Panama.
Example:
Known as 'El Libertador,' Simon Bolivar envisioned a unified Gran Colombia, leading armies across vast territories to liberate them from Spanish rule.
Social Contract
An implicit agreement among the members of a society to cooperate for social benefits, for example by sacrificing some individual freedom for state protection.
Example:
Rousseau's concept of the social contract suggests that legitimate political authority comes from the consent of the governed, not from divine right.
Storming of the Bastille
An event that occurred in Paris on July 14, 1789, when an angry mob stormed the Bastille prison, symbolizing the beginning of the French Revolution.
Example:
The Storming of the Bastille became a powerful symbol of the people's defiance against royal authority and oppression in France.
Tabula Rasa
The theory that individuals are born without built-in mental content, and therefore all knowledge comes from experience or perception.
Example:
The idea of tabula rasa implied that people were not predetermined by birth for certain social roles, challenging the rigid class structures of the Old Regime.
Third Estate
In pre-revolutionary France, the commoners, comprising the vast majority of the population, who bore the brunt of taxation and lacked political representation.
Example:
The grievances of the Third Estate, which included peasants, urban workers, and the bourgeoisie, were central to the demands for reform during the French Revolution.
Toussaint L'Ouverture
A formerly enslaved man who rose to become the leader of the Haitian Revolution, transforming the slave revolt into a successful independence movement.
Example:
Toussaint L'Ouverture skillfully led the enslaved people of Haiti to victory against French, Spanish, and British forces, securing their freedom.