Glossary
Bourgeoisie
In Marxist theory, the capitalist class who own most of society's wealth and means of production.
Example:
Karl Marx believed that the bourgeoisie, as factory owners and industrialists, exploited the labor of the working class to accumulate their vast fortunes.
Boxer Rebellion
An anti-foreign, anti-colonial, and anti-Christian uprising in China between 1899 and 1901, led by the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists.
Example:
The Boxer Rebellion saw Chinese nationalists attack foreign legations and Christian missionaries, but it was ultimately crushed by an international coalition of armies, further weakening the Qing Dynasty.
Collective Bargaining
A process of negotiation between employers and a group of employees, usually represented by a labor union, to determine terms of employment.
Example:
Through collective bargaining, the United Auto Workers (UAW) union successfully negotiated healthcare benefits and retirement plans for its members with major car manufacturers.
Communism
A political and economic ideology that advocates for a classless society in which all property and wealth are communally owned and controlled.
Example:
While pure communism as envisioned by Marx has never been fully realized on a national scale, many 20th-century states adopted communist party rule, aiming for a society without private property.
Communist Manifesto
A foundational text of Marxism, written by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, outlining their theories on class struggle and the nature of capitalism.
Example:
The Communist Manifesto famously ends with the rallying cry, 'Workers of the world, unite!', urging the proletariat to overthrow the capitalist system.
Frederick Engels
A German social scientist, author, political theorist, philosopher, and father of Marxist theory, alongside Karl Marx.
Example:
Frederick Engels provided crucial financial support and intellectual collaboration to Marx, helping him complete 'Das Kapital' and co-author 'The Communist Manifesto'.
John Stuart Mill
An influential English philosopher, economist, and political theorist, considered a key proponent of utilitarianism and liberalism.
Example:
John Stuart Mill argued for individual liberties and the importance of free speech, believing these were essential for societal progress and the 'greatest good'.
Karl Marx
A German philosopher, economist, historian, sociologist, political theorist, journalist, and socialist revolutionary, co-founder of Marxism.
Example:
Karl Marx famously declared that 'the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles,' laying the groundwork for communist thought.
Labor Unions
Organizations formed by workers to advocate for their collective interests, aiming to improve wages, working conditions, and rights.
Example:
During the late 19th century, the American Federation of Labor (AFL) emerged as a powerful labor union, pushing for an eight-hour workday and better pay for skilled workers.
Marxism
A social, political, and economic theory, originated by Karl Marx, that views history as a struggle between social classes and advocates for a classless society.
Example:
The Russian Revolution of 1917, which aimed to establish a workers' state, drew heavily from the ideas of Marxism, seeking to dismantle the existing capitalist system.
Ottoman Empire
A vast transcontinental empire founded in the 14th century, which, by the 19th century, was in decline and attempted various reforms to modernize and resist European encroachment.
Example:
Often referred to as the 'Sick Man of Europe,' the Ottoman Empire tried to implement reforms like the Tanzimat to prevent its collapse, but ultimately lost significant territory and influence.
Proletariat
In Marxist theory, the working class, especially those who do not own capital and must sell their labor for wages.
Example:
The industrial revolution saw a massive increase in the proletariat, as more people moved to cities to work in factories, often enduring harsh conditions.
Qing Dynasty
The last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912, which faced significant internal rebellions and external pressures from Western powers during the industrial era.
Example:
The Qing Dynasty struggled to adapt to the challenges of industrialization and imperialism, eventually collapsing in 1911 after centuries of rule.
Self-Strengthening Movement
A period of institutional reforms in China during the late 19th century, aimed at modernizing the military and economy by adopting Western technology and knowledge.
Example:
During the Self-Strengthening Movement, China established arsenals and shipyards, and sent students abroad to study Western science and engineering, hoping to resist foreign encroachment.
Strikes
A work stoppage initiated by a group of employees as a form of protest to demand better working conditions, higher wages, or other concessions from employers.
Example:
Coal miners in the early 20th century often resorted to strikes, refusing to work until their demands for safer mines and fairer pay were met, sometimes leading to violent confrontations.
Suffrage
The right to vote in political elections.
Example:
The expansion of suffrage in many industrialized nations meant that working-class men, previously excluded, gained a voice in government, influencing policies that affected their lives.
Sultan Abdulhamid
The last absolute monarch of the Ottoman Empire, who halted the Tanzimat reforms and ruled with an authoritarian hand, fearing Western influence.
Example:
Sultan Abdulhamid centralized power and suppressed dissent, ultimately failing to prevent the empire's decline despite his efforts to maintain control.
Sultan Mahmud II
An Ottoman Sultan who initiated significant reforms in the early 19th century, modernizing the military and administration to strengthen the empire.
Example:
Sultan Mahmud II famously abolished the Janissaries, a powerful but outdated military corps, paving the way for a more modern, European-style army.
Tanzimat Reforms
A series of reforms in the Ottoman Empire from 1839 to 1876, aimed at modernizing the empire, centralizing power, and adopting Western legal and administrative practices.
Example:
The Tanzimat Reforms included the establishment of a new legal code, the creation of secular schools, and efforts to improve the tax system, though they faced significant resistance.
Utilitarianism
An ethical philosophy proposing that the best action is the one that maximizes utility, often defined as that which produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
Example:
A government implementing a new public health policy that benefits the majority of its citizens, even if it inconveniences a small minority, would be acting on the principles of utilitarianism.