Revolutions (1750-1900)

They reinforced the existing Eurocentric periodization by emphasizing European intellectual superiority.

They were largely ignored outside of Europe until the late 19th century, maintaining traditional historical divisions.

They inspired similar intellectual movements and rebellions against established authorities in various regions.

They led to a reassertion of monarchical power that delayed democratic developments worldwide.

It advocated for blending all governmental functions into one body for efficiency.

It eliminated legislative bodies in favor of executive decrees as main law-making methods.

It formed the basis for dividing government into different branches with checks and balances.

It centralized power within a singular branch to streamline decision-making processes.

Voltaire's defense of freedom of speech and religious toleration.

Montesquieu's ideas on separation of powers within government structures.

Rousseau’s belief in the noble savage and return to simpler living conditions.

John Locke's theory about natural rights and government by consent.

They led to the endorsement of mercantilist policies that reinforced absolute control over national economies by monarchs.

They promoted divine right theories that supported unchallenged royal authority and traditional hierarchies.

They fostered the continuation of feudal practices by emphasizing traditional class structures and privileges.

They encouraged the limitation of royal power and implementation of laws based on rational thought benefiting society as a whole.

They were obliged to by their teachings

They sought financial benefits from these rulers

They maintained order and stability within society while promoting moderate reformations beneficial to the Church's interests

They saw them as direct representatives of God

The focus on individual rights and liberties

The scientific method’s application to social issues

The idea of popular sovereignty

The rejection of traditional authority figures

They acted as important meeting places where philosophers, artists, intellectuals, and politicians could exchange ideas freely.

They were exclusive art exhibits which primarily promoted social hierarchy through patronage by the royalty and influential nobles.

These establishments functioned merely as bookshops where Enlightenment literature was sold without further discussion or interaction.

Salons operated as underground networks for spreading revolutionary propaganda that encouraged violent overtures against existing governments.

globalization

nationalism

Sufism

European and American rivalries

northern

southern

eastern

western

Rousseau

Diderot

Hobbes

Montesquieu