Glossary
Abstract Learning
Learning that involves understanding concepts or general rules rather than just specific examples or actions.
Example:
A dog trained to fetch 'any' round object, not just a specific ball, demonstrates abstract learning of the concept of 'roundness'.
Antisocial Modeling
The process of learning negative, destructive, or aggressive behaviors by observing others.
Example:
Exposure to violent video games or aggressive role models can lead to antisocial modeling, where individuals imitate harmful actions.
Attention
The first necessary process in observational learning, requiring the observer to focus on the model's behavior.
Example:
To learn a new dance move, you must pay close attention to the instructor's footwork and body movements.
Bobo Doll Experiment
A classic study by Albert Bandura demonstrating that children are more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior if they observe an adult acting aggressively towards a Bobo doll.
Example:
The Bobo Doll Experiment highlighted how powerful observational learning can be, showing that children readily imitated aggressive actions they witnessed.
Cognitive Map
A mental representation of one's environment, often developed through latent learning.
Example:
After exploring a new city for a few days, you develop a cognitive map that allows you to navigate between landmarks without needing GPS.
Concept Learning
The process of forming mental categories or ideas based on shared characteristics, allowing for generalization to new instances.
Example:
Children engage in concept learning when they understand that all four-legged, furry animals that bark are 'dogs,' even if they look different.
Insight Learning
A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem, occurring without trial-and-error attempts.
Example:
Struggling with a complex math problem, you suddenly have an 'aha!' moment where the solution becomes clear, illustrating insight learning.
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and is not immediately demonstrated, only becoming apparent when there is an incentive to perform it.
Example:
A person drives a new route to work every day, unknowingly learning the side streets; this latent learning becomes evident when their usual route is closed and they can navigate an alternative without hesitation.
Mirror Neurons
Neurons in the frontal lobe that fire both when an individual performs an action and when they observe someone else performing the same action.
Example:
When you wince watching someone stub their toe, your mirror neurons are likely firing, allowing you to empathize with their pain.
Modeling
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior demonstrated by another individual.
Example:
After watching a famous chef prepare a complex dish on TV, an aspiring cook tries to model the exact techniques in their own kitchen.
Motivation
The fourth and final process in observational learning, requiring a reason or incentive to perform the observed behavior.
Example:
A student might have the attention, retention, and reproduction skills to cheat on a test, but they need the motivation (e.g., fear of failure) to actually do it.
Negative Punishment
Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease the frequency of a behavior.
Example:
A child's video game privileges are taken away for not completing their homework, serving as negative punishment to discourage future procrastination.
Negative Reinforcement
Removing an undesirable stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior.
Example:
You buckle your seatbelt to stop the annoying beeping sound in your car, an example of negative reinforcement that increases seatbelt use.
Observational Learning
Learning that occurs by watching others and then imitating or modeling their behavior.
Example:
A young child learns to tie their shoes by watching their parent demonstrate the process, then attempting to replicate the steps themselves.
Positive Punishment
Adding an undesirable stimulus to decrease the frequency of a behavior.
Example:
A teenager receives extra chores for missing their curfew, which is a form of positive punishment aimed at reducing future curfew violations.
Positive Reinforcement
Adding a desirable stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior.
Example:
A student receives a sticker for turning in their homework on time, which is positive reinforcement to encourage continued punctuality.
Prosocial Behavior
Positive, constructive, helpful behavior that is often learned through observation and modeling.
Example:
A child who regularly sees their parents volunteer at a local shelter is likely to develop prosocial behavior and a desire to help others.
Punishment
Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Example:
A dog owner uses a firm 'No!' when their dog jumps on guests, hoping this punishment will reduce the jumping behavior.
Reinforcement
Any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Example:
A coach offers praise and high-fives after a good play, using reinforcement to encourage similar performance in the future.
Reproduction
The third process in observational learning, which is the ability to physically and mentally replicate the observed behavior.
Example:
Even if you've watched many basketball games, your ability for reproduction might be limited if you lack the physical coordination to dribble and shoot like a pro.
Retention
The second process in observational learning, involving the ability to remember or store the observed behavior in memory.
Example:
After watching a tutorial on how to solve a Rubik's Cube, you need good retention to recall the sequence of moves later.