Glossary
Actor-Observer Bias
The tendency to attribute one's own actions to situational (external) factors, while attributing others' actions to dispositional (internal) factors.
Example:
If you cut someone off in traffic and blame it on being late, but then judge someone else who cuts you off as a reckless driver, you are exhibiting actor-observer bias.
Algorithms
A step-by-step procedure or formula that guarantees a solution to a particular problem, though it can be slower than heuristics.
Example:
Following a recipe precisely to bake a cake is an example of using an algorithm, as it ensures a predictable outcome if all steps are followed correctly.
Anchoring Bias
A cognitive bias where an individual relies too heavily on the first piece of information offered (the 'anchor') when making decisions.
Example:
When negotiating the price of a used car, the initial asking price, even if high, can serve as an anchoring bias, influencing subsequent offers.
Attentional Bias
The tendency for one's recurring thoughts or current concerns to influence what information they notice and pay attention to in their environment.
Example:
Someone who is constantly worried about their health might notice every cough or sneeze around them, demonstrating an attentional bias towards illness-related cues.
Availability Heuristic
A cognitive shortcut where the likelihood of an event is judged based on how easily examples or instances come to mind.
Example:
After seeing several news reports about shark attacks, a person might overestimate the danger of swimming in the ocean, demonstrating the availability heuristic.
Belief Bias
The tendency for one's existing beliefs to distort logical reasoning, making conclusions that align with beliefs seem more valid, even if illogical.
Example:
If a person believes all dogs are friendly, they might illogically conclude that a snarling dog is just playing, due to belief bias.
Belief Perseverance
The tendency to cling to one's initial beliefs even after they have been discredited or proven wrong by new evidence.
Example:
Despite overwhelming scientific evidence, someone might maintain their belief in a debunked conspiracy theory, demonstrating belief perseverance.
Biases
Systematic patterns of deviation from rationality in judgment, often leading to predictable errors in thinking.
Example:
Our tendency to favor information that confirms our existing beliefs is a common cognitive bias.
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to seek out, interpret, and favor information that supports one's existing beliefs, while ignoring or downplaying contradictory evidence.
Example:
A student who believes that studying only the night before an exam is effective might only remember instances where they did well with last-minute cramming, exhibiting confirmation bias.
Fixation
A cognitive obstacle where an individual becomes stuck on one way of viewing a problem, preventing them from considering alternative perspectives.
Example:
When trying to solve a complex puzzle, a person might experience fixation if they keep trying the same incorrect approach repeatedly, unable to shift their strategy.
Framing
The way an issue or question is presented, which can significantly influence people's decisions, judgments, and perceptions.
Example:
A food product advertised as '90% fat-free' sounds much healthier than one labeled 'contains 10% fat,' even though they are identical, due to the effect of framing.
Functional Fixedness
A type of fixation where one can only perceive an object for its typical use, hindering the ability to see its potential for other functions.
Example:
A student needing to prop open a window might struggle if they only see a textbook as something to read, failing to overcome functional fixedness and use it as a wedge.
Halo Effect
A cognitive bias where a positive impression of a person in one area influences one's perception of them in other, unrelated areas.
Example:
Assuming that a celebrity who is good at acting must also be highly intelligent or a good role model, even without evidence, is an example of the halo effect.
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that allow for quick decision-making and problem-solving, though they can sometimes lead to errors.
Example:
When deciding which line to join at the grocery store, you might use a heuristic by choosing the shortest one, hoping it will be the fastest.
Hindsight Bias
The 'I knew it all along' phenomenon, where one overestimates their ability to have predicted an outcome after it has already occurred.
Example:
After a surprising plot twist in a movie, claiming you foresaw it from the beginning, even if you didn't, is an example of hindsight bias.
Representativeness Heuristic
A cognitive shortcut used to judge the likelihood of something by how well it matches a particular prototype or stereotype, often leading to the neglect of relevant statistical information.
Example:
Assuming someone who wears glasses and reads a lot is a librarian, rather than considering they could be a construction worker, illustrates the representativeness heuristic.
Self-Serving Bias
The tendency to attribute one's successes to internal factors (e.g., ability) and one's failures to external factors (e.g., bad luck or circumstances).
Example:
A basketball player might credit their winning shot to their skill but blame a missed shot on a slippery court, illustrating self-serving bias.