#AP Psychology: Problem Solving, Biases, and Heuristics Study Guide

Hey there, future AP Psych master! 👋 Let's break down these tricky concepts together. This guide is designed to be your go-to resource the night before the exam, making sure you're feeling confident and ready to ace it! We'll cover everything from fixation to framing, making it all click with clear explanations, memory aids, and exam tips.

#Cognition and Problem Solving

#Fixation

Fixation is like wearing blinders 🙈 in your thinking. It's when you get stuck on one way of seeing a problem and can't consider other perspectives. It's closely tied to your existing mental concepts.

#Functional Fixedness

• Definition: A type of fixation where you only see an object for its typical use. You miss out on other potential uses.
• Example: The classic candle problem: You're given a box of thumbtacks, matches 🔥, and a candle 🕯️ and asked to attach the candle to a wall so it doesn't drip. People often fail because they only see the box as a container, not as a platform. The solution? Tack the box to the wall, then place the candle inside.
• Why it matters: Functional fixedness limits creative problem-solving. Think outside the box 📦!

#Heuristics

Heuristics are mental shortcuts that help us make quick decisions. They're useful, but can also lead to errors. Let's look at two big ones:

#Availability Heuristic

• Definition: Judging the likelihood of events based on how easily they come to mind. If something is easily recalled, we think it's more common. 💡
• Example: Parents fearing letting their kids walk to school 🏫 because they remember a news story about a missing child ⚠️. This vivid memory makes them overestimate the danger, even if it's statistically rare.
• Why it matters: The availability heuristic can make us fear the wrong things because what's readily available in our memory isn't always representative of reality.

Image Courtesy of The Decision Lab.

#Representativeness Heuristic

• Definition: Judging something based on how well it fits our prototype or stereotype of a category. This can lead to ignoring relevant information.
• Example: Deciding whether a truck driver 🚚 or a professor 👩‍🏫👨‍🏫 is more likely to have attended an Ivy League school. Most people would say the professor, based on their prototype of an Ivy League student, even though it's possible the truck driver did.
• Why it matters: The representativeness heuristic is a root cause of stereotypes and can lead to inaccurate judgments.

#Biases

Biases are systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment. They're like the little gremlins that mess with our thinking!

#Confirmation Bias

• Definition: The tendency to seek out and favor information that confirms our existing beliefs, while ignoring contradictory evidence. 🧐
• Example: Republicans 🔴 watching Fox News to reinforce their political views. It's like only reading articles that agree with you.
• Why it matters: Confirmation bias can lead to polarization and close-mindedness.

#Belief Perseverance and Belief Bias

• Belief Perseverance: Holding onto a belief even after it's been discredited. It's like refusing to let go of an old idea even when it's been proven wrong.
• Belief Bias: When our existing beliefs distort our logical thinking. It's like seeing what you want to see, even if it doesn't make sense.

#Halo Effect

• Definition: When a positive impression in one area influences our perception in other areas. It's like thinking someone attractive is also smart and kind.
• Example: Assuming an attractive person has a great personality, even without evidence.

#Self-Serving Bias

• Definition: Attributing successes to internal factors (our abilities) and failures to external factors (bad luck or other people). It's like taking credit for the good and blaming others for the bad.
• Example: Getting a good grade 💯 and thinking it's because you're smart, but getting a bad grade and blaming the teacher.

#Attentional Bias

• Definition: When recurring thoughts influence what we notice. It's like seeing what's already on your mind.
• Example: If you're thinking about marine biology, you'll notice more conversations and information related to it.

#Actor-Observer Bias

• Definition: Attributing our own actions to external factors and others' actions to internal factors. It's like giving yourself excuses but judging others harshly.
• Example: Littering and saying it's because there was no trash can 🗑️, but thinking someone else littering is just careless.

#Anchoring Bias

• Definition: Over-relying on the first piece of information (the anchor) when making a decision. It's like being stuck on the first price you see.

#Hindsight Bias

• Definition: The "I knew it all along" phenomenon. Overestimating our ability to have predicted an outcome after it has happened.
• Example: Saying "I knew that was going to happen!" after an event, even if it was unpredictable.

Image Courtesy of Giphy.

#Framing

• Definition: The way an issue is presented, which can significantly influence our decisions and judgments. It's like the spin you put on a situation.
• Example: A doctor saying a surgery has a 10% mortality rate 😲 vs. a 90% survival rate 😌. They're the same thing, but the framing makes a huge difference.
• Why it matters: Framing is a powerful tool for persuasion.

Image Courtesy of The Decision Lab.

#Final Exam Focus

Okay, let's get down to brass tacks. Here’s what you absolutely need to know for the exam:

• High-Priority Topics: Pay extra attention to heuristics, biases (especially confirmation bias, self-serving bias, and framing), and functional fixedness. These topics are frequently tested in both multiple-choice and free-response questions.
• Common Question Types: Expect questions that ask you to identify examples of biases and heuristics in everyday situations. Be prepared to explain how these concepts affect decision-making and problem-solving.
• FRQ Tips: When writing FRQs, make sure to define the terms clearly and provide real-world examples to support your points. Always relate the concepts back to the scenario in the question.
• Time Management: Don't spend too long on any one question. If you're stuck, move on and come back to it later. Make sure you have enough time to complete all sections of the exam.
• Common Pitfalls: Avoid vague answers. Be specific and use the correct terminology. Don't confuse different biases with each other. Practice applying the concepts to different scenarios.

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Practice Question

Practice Questions

#Multiple Choice Questions

1. A person who believes that all librarians are quiet and introverted is demonstrating: (A) Confirmation bias (B) Availability heuristic (C) Representativeness heuristic (D) Functional fixedness (E) Hindsight bias

2. Which of the following best illustrates the concept of the availability heuristic? (A) A person avoids flying after seeing a news report about a plane crash. (B) A person only seeks out information that confirms their political beliefs. (C) A person blames their poor test grade on the teacher instead of their lack of studying. (D) A person believes they knew the outcome of an event all along. (E) A person is unable to use a hammer to open a can of paint.

3. The tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence is called: (A) belief perseverance (B) confirmation bias (C) functional fixedness (D) the availability heuristic (E) the representativeness heuristic

#Free Response Question

Scenario:

Sarah is a high school student who believes she is an excellent writer. She receives a paper back from her English teacher with a low grade and extensive critical feedback. Sarah tells her friends that her teacher is just a tough grader and doesn't understand her writing style. She then goes online to find articles that praise her favorite authors and their similar writing styles. She starts to believe that her teacher is just biased against her and that her writing is actually great.

(a) Define and explain three cognitive biases or heuristics that are evident in Sarah's behavior. (b) Explain how each of these biases or heuristics might affect Sarah's future academic performance.

Scoring Rubric:

(a) (3 points)

• 1 point for correctly defining each of the three biases or heuristics.
• 1 point for explaining how each of the three biases or heuristics is evident in Sarah's behavior.

Possible answers:

• Self-Serving Bias: Sarah attributes her success in writing to her own abilities, but blames the teacher for her failure.
• Confirmation Bias: Sarah seeks out information that confirms her belief that she is a good writer and ignores the critical feedback from her teacher.
• Belief Perseverance: Sarah holds onto her belief that she is a good writer despite the evidence of the low grade and critical feedback.

(b) (3 points)

• 1 point for explaining how each of the three biases or heuristics might affect Sarah's future academic performance.

Possible answers:

• Self-Serving Bias: Sarah may not take responsibility for her mistakes, hindering her improvement in writing.
• Confirmation Bias: Sarah may not learn from her mistakes, leading to continued poor performance in writing.
• Belief Perseverance: Sarah may not be open to constructive criticism, limiting her growth as a writer.

That's it! You've got this! Go get 'em, future psychologist! 🚀