Glossary
Byzantine Empire
The continuation of the Roman Empire in the East, with its capital at Constantinople, which persisted for over a thousand years after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
Example:
The Byzantine Empire preserved much of ancient Greek and Roman culture and law, acting as a bridge between classical antiquity and the Renaissance.
Centralized government
A system where political power and authority are concentrated in a single, central administrative body or ruler, rather than being distributed among many local entities.
Example:
Under Louis XIV, France operated with a highly centralized government, with all major decisions emanating from the king and his court at Versailles.
Colonization
The process by which a colonizing power establishes control over a distant territory, often exploiting its resources and people, and imposing its own political, economic, and cultural systems.
Example:
European powers engaged in extensive colonization of the Americas, establishing settlements and extracting vast amounts of silver and other resources.
Diplomacy
The practice of conducting negotiations between representatives of states or groups, often to resolve conflicts, form alliances, or establish peaceful relations.
Example:
The Han Dynasty often used diplomacy, alongside military pressure, to secure alliances with nomadic groups on its borders, sometimes offering gifts or marriage pacts.
Feudal system (in context of Tokugawa)
A hierarchical social and political structure in which land is exchanged for military service or loyalty, with power distributed among a shogun, daimyo, samurai, and peasants.
Example:
Under the feudal system of the Tokugawa Shogunate, samurai warriors pledged loyalty to their daimyo, who in turn served the shogun, forming a rigid social order.
Gunpowder Empires
A term used to describe the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires, which rose to prominence due to their effective use and development of gunpowder weaponry, particularly artillery.
Example:
The Gunpowder Empires revolutionized warfare by integrating cannons and firearms into their armies, allowing them to conquer vast territories and consolidate power.
Jizya Tax
A per capita tax historically levied on non-Muslim subjects (dhimmis) in Muslim states, often seen as a payment for protection and exemption from military service.
Example:
The Mughal emperor Akbar temporarily abolished the jizya tax to promote religious tolerance and integrate non-Muslims more fully into his empire.
Land-based empires
Empires that primarily expand and maintain power through control of contiguous land territories and resources, rather than maritime trade routes.
Example:
The Mongol Empire rapidly expanded across Eurasia by conquering vast landmasses and establishing overland trade routes.
Mali Empire
A powerful West African empire that flourished from the 13th to 17th centuries, known for its wealth derived from gold and salt trade, and its influential rulers like Mansa Musa.
Example:
The Mali Empire controlled vast trade networks across the Sahara, making its capital, Timbuktu, a renowned center of Islamic scholarship and commerce.
Military Conquest
The act of taking control of a territory or people by force, typically through warfare and the defeat of opposing armies.
Example:
The Roman Empire's expansion across Europe and North Africa was largely achieved through relentless military conquest of various tribes and kingdoms.
Mughal Empire
A powerful Islamic empire that ruled most of the Indian subcontinent from the early 16th to mid-19th century, renowned for its architectural achievements and cultural synthesis.
Example:
The Mughal Empire constructed the Taj Mahal, a magnificent mausoleum that stands as a testament to their architectural prowess and blend of Persian, Islamic, and Indian styles.
Ottoman Empire
A powerful Turkic empire that originated in Anatolia and expanded to control much of Southeast Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East from the late 13th to early 20th centuries.
Example:
The Ottoman Empire famously captured Constantinople in 1453, renaming it Istanbul and making it their new capital, showcasing their military might and strategic importance.
Qing China
The last imperial dynasty of China, ruled by the Manchu Aisin-Gioro clan, which lasted from 1644 to 1912, expanding China's borders to their greatest extent.
Example:
Qing China utilized gunpowder weapons to consolidate its vast empire, including the conquest of Central Asia, demonstrating the continued importance of military technology.
Safavid Empire
A major Shi'a Muslim empire that ruled Persia (modern-day Iran) from the early 16th to mid-18th century, known for its vibrant art, architecture, and religious identity.
Example:
The Safavid Empire established Shi'a Islam as the state religion, which created a distinct cultural and political identity that often clashed with its Sunni neighbors like the Ottomans.
Sakoku policy
Japan's isolationist foreign policy enacted by the Tokugawa Shogunate, which severely restricted foreign trade and travel, lasting for over 200 years.
Example:
Due to the Sakoku policy, only a limited number of Dutch and Chinese traders were permitted to enter Japan at the port of Nagasaki, preventing most foreign influence.
Song Dynasty
A Chinese dynasty that ruled from 960 to 1279, known for its economic prosperity, technological innovations (including gunpowder), and cultural achievements.
Example:
The Song Dynasty saw significant advancements in printing, navigation, and the first widespread use of paper money, laying groundwork for future innovations.
Timurid Empire
A vast Turco-Mongol empire founded by Timur (Tamerlane) in the late 14th century, encompassing Persia, Central Asia, and parts of India, known for its cultural flourishing.
Example:
The Timurid Empire left a legacy of stunning architecture and advancements in mathematics and astronomy, particularly in cities like Samarkand.
Tokugawa Shogunate
The last feudal government of Japan, which ruled from 1603 to 1868, characterized by a centralized military government and a policy of national isolation.
Example:
The Tokugawa Shogunate maintained strict control over the daimyo (feudal lords) through policies like sankin-kotai, requiring them to spend alternate years in Edo.
Trade (as a method of expansion)
The exchange of goods and services, which can serve as a method of imperial expansion by establishing economic influence, control over resources, and strategic alliances.
Example:
The British East India Company initially expanded its influence in India through trade agreements before eventually asserting political and military dominance.
Yuan Dynasty
The dynasty established in China by the Mongol-led Yuan imperial house, which ruled from 1271 to 1368, succeeding the Song Dynasty.
Example:
The Yuan Dynasty facilitated increased cultural exchange between China and the West, as evidenced by the travels of Marco Polo.