Glossary
Balkans
A geopolitical and cultural region in Southeast Europe, historically a site of ethnic and political tensions, particularly during the decline of the Ottoman Empire.
Example:
The weakening Ottoman Empire led to increased nationalist movements and conflicts in the Balkans, drawing the attention of larger European powers.
Berlin Conference
A meeting of European powers in 1884-1885 that regulated European colonization and trade in Africa, formalizing the 'Scramble for Africa' without African representation.
Example:
The Berlin Conference arbitrarily drew colonial borders across Africa, ignoring existing ethnic and linguistic divisions, which led to future conflicts.
Boxer Rebellion
An anti-foreign, anti-colonial, and anti-Christian uprising in China between 1899 and 1901, led by the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists.
Example:
The Boxer Rebellion aimed to expel all foreign influence from China but was ultimately suppressed by an international coalition of imperial powers.
British Raj
The period of British rule on the Indian subcontinent between 1757 and 1947, during which India was directly governed by the British Crown.
Example:
Under the British Raj, India became a crucial source of raw materials like cotton and a vast market for British manufactured goods.
Cecil Rhodes
A British businessman and politician who was a key figure in British imperial expansion in southern Africa, particularly known for his diamond mining interests.
Example:
Cecil Rhodes envisioned a British railway stretching from 'Cape to Cairo,' symbolizing the vast ambitions of British imperialism in Africa.
Chinese Exclusion Act
A United States federal law signed by President Chester A. Arthur in 1882, prohibiting all immigration of Chinese laborers.
Example:
The Chinese Exclusion Act reflected growing anti-immigrant sentiment and economic anxieties in the United States during the late 19th century.
Colonialism
The policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.
Example:
European colonialism in Southeast Asia led to the establishment of vast rubber and tin plantations, enriching the colonizers at the expense of local populations.
Commodity
A raw material or primary agricultural product that can be bought and sold, such as copper or coffee.
Example:
Rubber became a highly sought-after commodity in the late 19th century due to the booming automobile industry, leading to its intensive cultivation in colonial territories.
Congo Free State
A large area in Central Africa privately controlled by King Leopold II of Belgium from 1885 to 1908, notorious for its brutal exploitation of rubber and ivory.
Example:
The atrocities committed in the Congo Free State, including forced labor and mutilation, sparked international outrage and condemnation.
Convict labor
A system where prisoners are used for forced labor, often in harsh conditions, as a form of punishment or to contribute to public works.
Example:
Australia was initially established as a penal colony, where convict labor was extensively used for infrastructure projects and agricultural development.
Cotton
A soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll around the seeds of cotton plants, which is spun into yarn or thread and used to make textiles.
Example:
The immense demand for cotton by British textile mills fueled the expansion of plantations in India and the American South, often relying on coerced labor.
Deindustrialization
The decline in industrial activity in a region or economy, often due to the rise of manufacturing in other areas or the shift to a service economy.
Example:
India experienced significant deindustrialization under British rule, as its traditional textile industry was undermined by cheap, factory-made British goods.
Dutch East Indies
The former Dutch colonial territory in Southeast Asia, which is now Indonesia, known for its rich spice and resource trade.
Example:
The Dutch East Indies were a crucial source of spices, coffee, and rubber for the Netherlands, contributing significantly to its imperial wealth.
Economic Imperialism
A situation where one country has significant economic power or influence over another, often without direct political control.
Example:
American companies exerted economic imperialism over Hawaiian sugar plantations, eventually leading to the annexation of the islands.
Ethnic enclave
A neighborhood, district, or suburb which retains some cultural distinction from a larger surrounding area, often formed by immigrant communities.
Example:
Chinatowns in cities like San Francisco and New York served as ethnic enclaves for Chinese immigrants, providing cultural familiarity and support in a new country.
French Indochina
A federation of French colonial territories in Southeast Asia, comprising present-day Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.
Example:
French Indochina was exploited for its rice, rubber, and mineral resources, and its people faced harsh colonial rule.
Ghost Dance
A new religious movement incorporated into numerous Native American belief systems, which prophesied the peaceful end of white expansion and a return to traditional ways.
Example:
The Ghost Dance movement offered a spiritual form of resistance for Native Americans facing the relentless expansion of the United States.
Global Capitalism
An economic system in which private actors own and control property in accord with their interests, and demand and supply freely set prices in markets, on a worldwide scale.
Example:
The expansion of global capitalism in the 19th century meant that raw materials from colonies were shipped to industrial centers, and manufactured goods were then sold back to colonial markets.
Guano
The accumulated excrement of seabirds and bats, valued as a highly effective fertilizer.
Example:
The discovery of vast guano deposits on islands off the coast of Peru led to a boom in its extraction and export, driven by global agricultural demand.
Hawaii
A group of Polynesian islands in the Pacific Ocean, which became a U.S. territory and later a state, significant for its strategic location and agricultural resources.
Example:
American business interests in Hawaii's sugar and pineapple industries played a key role in its eventual annexation by the United States.
Ideology
A system of ideas and ideals, especially one that forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy.
Example:
The ideology of Social Darwinism provided a pseudo-scientific justification for European imperialism and racial hierarchies.
Imperialism
A policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force, often involving the acquisition of colonies and territories.
Example:
European powers engaged in intense imperialism in Africa during the late 19th century, carving up the continent for resources and strategic advantage.
Indentured Servitude
A labor system where people signed a contract to work for a certain number of years in exchange for passage to a new land, food, and shelter.
Example:
After the abolition of slavery, many Chinese and Indian laborers migrated to the Caribbean and Southeast Asia as indentured servants to work on plantations.
Industrial crops
Crops grown for industrial use rather than for food, such as cotton, rubber, and palm oil.
Example:
Colonial powers often forced farmers in their territories to cultivate industrial crops like rubber and palm oil, diverting land from food production.
Industrialization
The process of developing industries in a country or region on a wide scale, characterized by the shift from agrarian and handicraft economies to those dominated by machine manufacturing.
Example:
The rapid Industrialization of Great Britain in the 18th and 19th centuries led to a massive demand for raw materials and new markets, fueling its imperial expansion.
Kimberley Diamond Strike
The discovery of vast diamond deposits in Kimberley, South Africa, in 1868, which led to a diamond rush and significant British involvement in the region.
Example:
The Kimberley Diamond Strike transformed the economy of southern Africa and intensified European competition for control over its mineral wealth.
King Leopold II
The second King of the Belgians, who privately owned and brutally exploited the Congo Free State for rubber and ivory, leading to millions of deaths.
Example:
King Leopold II's personal rule over the Congo Free State is widely regarded as one of the most egregious examples of colonial exploitation and human rights abuses.
Mahdist Revolt
A religious and political uprising in Sudan led by Muhammad Ahmad, who proclaimed himself the Mahdi, against Egyptian and later British rule in the late 19th century.
Example:
The Mahdist Revolt successfully established an independent state in Sudan for over a decade, demonstrating effective armed resistance against imperial powers.
Meiji Restoration
A political revolution in Japan in 1868 that ended the Tokugawa shogunate and restored imperial rule, leading to rapid modernization and industrialization.
Example:
The Meiji Restoration allowed Japan to quickly industrialize and avoid Western domination, eventually becoming an imperial power itself.
Migration
The movement of people from one place to another, often across long distances, for various reasons such as economic opportunity, conflict, or environmental factors.
Example:
The construction of railroads and steamships facilitated massive migration flows in the 19th century, as people moved from Europe to the Americas and from Asia to various parts of the British Empire.
Nationalism
A strong identification with one's own nation and support for its interests, especially to the exclusion or detriment of the interests of other nations.
Example:
The rise of nationalism in European states fueled competition for colonies, as acquiring overseas territories became a symbol of national power and prestige.
Opium
A highly addictive narcotic drug derived from the opium poppy, which was extensively traded by the British in China.
Example:
The British East India Company illegally imported vast quantities of opium into China, creating widespread addiction and leading to the Opium Wars.
Opium Wars
Two mid-19th century conflicts between Great Britain and China, sparked by China's attempts to suppress the illegal opium trade.
Example:
The Opium Wars resulted in humiliating defeats for China, forcing it to open more ports to foreign trade and cede territory like Hong Kong.
Palm Oil
An edible vegetable oil derived from the fruit of oil palm trees, which became a crucial commodity for industrial lubrication and soap production.
Example:
The demand for palm oil in Europe led to the expansion of plantations in West Africa, transforming local economies and land use.
Racism
Prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against someone of a different race based on the belief that one's own race is superior.
Example:
The widespread belief in European racial superiority, a form of racism, was often used to justify the brutal exploitation of colonized peoples.
Railroads
A form of transport that uses trains on railway tracks, which revolutionized transportation and facilitated the movement of goods, people, and troops.
Example:
The construction of railroads in India by the British allowed for the efficient extraction of raw materials from the interior to coastal ports for export.
Resistance
The act of opposing or fighting back against an authority or power, often seen in colonized peoples' efforts to challenge imperial rule.
Example:
The Zulu Nation's fierce resistance against British forces demonstrated the determination of indigenous groups to defend their sovereignty.
Rubber
A durable, elastic material obtained from the latex of certain trees, essential for industrial products like tires and machinery parts.
Example:
The global demand for rubber for industrial uses led to brutal exploitation of labor in the Congo and Southeast Asia to extract the resource.
Samory Touré
A West African Muslim cleric, military strategist, and state-builder who resisted French colonial expansion in the late 19th century.
Example:
Samory Touré established the Wassoulou Empire and employed innovative military tactics to resist French conquest for over a decade.
Settler Colonialism
A form of colonialism where foreign settlers emigrate to a new territory and establish a permanent presence, often displacing or eliminating the indigenous population.
Example:
The British establishment of Australia as a penal colony and subsequent expansion across the continent exemplifies settler colonialism, leading to the displacement of Aboriginal peoples.
Sino-Japanese War
A conflict between China and Japan (1894-1895) primarily over influence in Korea, which resulted in a decisive Japanese victory.
Example:
The Sino-Japanese War exposed the weakness of the Qing Dynasty and marked Japan's emergence as a major East Asian power.
Social Darwinism
A pseudoscientific theory that applied Darwin's theory of natural selection to human society, arguing that certain races or nations were inherently superior and destined to dominate others.
Example:
Social Darwinism was frequently used by imperial powers to justify their conquest and exploitation of 'inferior' non-European peoples.
Sokoto Caliphate
A powerful Islamic spiritual community and empire in West Africa, founded in the early 19th century, which resisted European encroachment.
Example:
The Sokoto Caliphate was a significant political and religious force in West Africa before its eventual conquest by the British.
Spanish-American War
A conflict in 1898 between Spain and the United States, resulting in the U.S. gaining control over territories like Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.
Example:
The Spanish-American War marked the emergence of the United States as a global imperial power with overseas possessions.
Suez Canal
An artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea, which significantly shortened maritime routes between Europe and Asia.
Example:
The opening of the Suez Canal drastically reduced travel time for ships, making it easier for Britain to maintain control over its Indian Empire.
Treaty of Nanjing
The peace treaty signed in 1842 that ended the First Opium War between Great Britain and China, imposing harsh terms on China.
Example:
The Treaty of Nanjing forced China to open five treaty ports, cede Hong Kong to Britain, and pay a large indemnity, marking the beginning of unequal treaties.
Tupac Amaru II
A Peruvian cacique (hereditary chief) who led a large-scale indigenous rebellion against Spanish colonial rule in the Andes in the late 18th century.
Example:
Tupac Amaru II's rebellion, though ultimately suppressed, inspired future independence movements in Latin America.
Urbanization
The process by which towns and cities are formed and grow as more people begin living and working in central areas.
Example:
Rapid urbanization occurred in industrializing nations as people moved from rural areas to cities in search of factory jobs.
White Australia Policy
A series of restrictive immigration policies in Australia from 1901 to the latter half of the 20th century, designed to favor immigrants of European descent.
Example:
The White Australia Policy reflected the racial prejudices prevalent in many settler colonial societies and aimed to maintain a racially homogenous population.
Xhosa Cattle-Killing Movement
A millenarian movement in 1856-1857 among the Xhosa people of South Africa, who killed their cattle and destroyed crops in the belief that this would lead to the departure of British settlers.
Example:
The tragic Xhosa Cattle-Killing Movement was a desperate act of spiritual resistance against colonial encroachment, leading to widespread famine.
Yaa Asantewaa War
A major armed uprising in 1900 led by Queen Mother Yaa Asantewaa against British colonial rule in the Ashanti Empire (modern-day Ghana).
Example:
The Yaa Asantewaa War demonstrated the fierce determination of African leaders to resist British attempts to seize the Golden Stool, a symbol of Ashanti sovereignty.
Zulu Nation
A powerful South African kingdom that rose to prominence in the early 19th century and famously resisted British imperial expansion.
Example:
The Zulu Nation inflicted a significant defeat on the British at the Battle of Isandlwana, showcasing their formidable military organization.